![]() Processing and storage of X-ray films 10.1 The darkroom Entrance and colour Darkroom lighting Darkroom layout Tanks 10.2 Chemicals and film-development Making-up processing solutions Developer Fixer Developing time and bath temperatures Film agitationġ1. Replenishing Stopbath Fixing Final wash Drying in the drying cabinet Roller dryers Recommendations for the darkroom Silver recovery Automatic film processing NDT-U (universal) film processor NDT-E (economy) film processor Checking the developing process and film archiving properties PMC-strips to check the developing process Thiosulphate-test to check the film archival properties Storage of exposed filmsĩ.1 Exposure chart parameters Type of X-ray equipment The radioactive source Source-to-film distance Intensifying screens Type of film Density Developing process 9.2 Densitometer 9.3 Producing an exposure chart for X-rays 9.4 The exposure chart 9.5 Use of the exposure chart 9.6 Relative exposure factors 9.7 Absolute exposure times 9.8 Use of the characteristic (density) curve with an exposure chart 10. 7.1 7.2 The X-ray film and its properties Structure of the X-ray film Radiographic image Latent image Developing the latent image Characteristics of the X-ray film Density (optical) ContrastĤ.1 X-ray tube 4.2 The anode Cooling the anode The focal spot Effective focal spot size 4.3 Tube voltage and tube current 4.4 Radioactive sources (isotopes)Ĭharacteristic curve (density curve) Gradient of the density curve Average gradient Effect of developing conditions on the density curve Film speed (sensitivity) Graininess Film types and storage of films The Agfa assortment of film types Film type selection Film sizes Handling and storage of unexposed films Exposure chartĦ3 63 65 65 68 68 68 71 71 10.3 10.4 10.5 Radiation sourcesĦ.1 Radiation images 6.2 Radiation filters 6.3 Intensifying screens Lead screens Steel and copper screens Fluorescent screens Salt screens Fluorometallic screens 7. Radiation images, filters and intensifying screensģ.1 Units 3.2 Definitions Radioactivity Ionisation dose rate Ionisation dose Absorbed energy dose Equivalent dose (man dose) 4. Units and definitionsĥ.1 X-ray equipment Types of X-ray tubes Bipolar X-ray tubes Unipolar X-ray tubes Special types of X-ray tubes 5.2 High voltage generators 5.3 Megavolt equipment The Bètatron The linear accelerator (linac) 5.4 Radioactive sources Average energy level (nominal value) 5.5 Source holders (capsules) 5.6 Transport- and exposure containers 5.7 Checking for container leakage 6. ![]() NDT equipmentĢ.1 Wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation 2.2 X-rays 2.3 Gamma-rays (γ-rays) 2.4 Main properties of X-rays and γ-rays 2.5 Radiation energy-hardness 2.6 Absorption and scattering Photoelectric effect Compton effect Pair production Total absorption/attenuation 2.7 Penetrating power 2.8 Filtering (hardening) 2.9 Half-value thickness 3. Natural radioactive sources Artificial radioactive sources 4.5 Advantages and disadvantages of artificial radioactive sources 4.6 Properties of radioactive sources Activity (source strength) Specific activity Specific gamma-ray emission (k-factor) Half-life of a radioactive source 5. Introduction to industrial radiography Basic properties of ionising radiation Introduction to the overview of “Industrial Radiography” Image forming techniques Preface 1. We trust that this revised edition of “Industrial Radiography” will once again fulfill a need. Moreover the separate small booklet entitled ”Radiographer’s Weld Interpretation Reference”, with a number of radiographs and their interpretation, now also has been inserted as an additional chapter in this new issue. Apart from the developments in conventional radiography with X-ray films, this overview also describes the now mature methods of digital radiography using radiation sensitive plate- and panel detectors including digitization of traditional film. Both were involved in NDT during the many decades they were employed by RTD bv (Non-Destructive Testing) with its headquarters in Rotterdam, the Netherlands. Kuiper, an experienced specialist and tutor on industrial radiography, assisted him. ![]() de Raad, NDT-expert and consultant, who has a considerable number of publications on the subject of non-destructive testing to his name. Since then, a few improved editions were released, each one with the latest image forming radiographic techniques added. The first overview “ Industrial Radiography” was published by Agfa in the sixties for educational and promotional purposes. Introduction to the overview of “Industrial Radiography” Image forming techniques Industrial Radiography Image forming techniques We reserve the right to technical modifications without prior notice.
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